Biology Specification

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Topic 1: The Nature and Variety of Living Organisms

(a) Characteristics of Living Organisms

  • 1.1 Understand how living organisms share the following characteristics:
    • They require nutrition
    • They respire
    • They excrete their waste
    • They respond to their surroundings
    • They move
    • They control their internal conditions
    • They reproduce
    • They grow and develop

(b) Variety of Living Organisms

  • 1.2 Describe the common features shown by eukaryotic organisms:

    Plants:

    • Multicellular organisms
    • Cells contain chloroplasts and carry out photosynthesis
    • Cells have cellulose cell walls
    • Store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose
    • Examples: flowering plants (e.g., maize, peas, beans)

    Animals:

    • Multicellular organisms
    • Cells do not contain chloroplasts and cannot carry out photosynthesis
    • No cell walls
    • Usually have nervous coordination and can move
    • Often store carbohydrate as glycogen
    • Examples: mammals (e.g., humans), insects (e.g., housefly, mosquito)

    Fungi:

    • Cannot carry out photosynthesis
    • Body organized into mycelium made from thread-like hyphae
    • Some examples are single-celled
    • Cells have walls made of chitin
    • Feed by saprotrophic nutrition
    • May store carbohydrate as glycogen
    • Examples: Mucor, yeast

    Protoctists:

    • Microscopic single-celled organisms
    • Some like Amoeba have animal-like features
    • Others like Chlorella have chloroplasts and are plant-like
    • Pathogenic example: Plasmodium (causes malaria)
  • 1.3 Describe the common features shown by prokaryotic organisms (bacteria):
    • Microscopic single-celled organisms
    • Have cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids
    • Lack nucleus but contain circular chromosome of DNA
    • Some can photosynthesize, most feed off other organisms
    • Examples: Lactobacillus bulgaricus (yoghurt production), Pneumococcus (causes pneumonia)
  • 1.4 Understand the term 'pathogen':
    • Pathogens may include fungi, bacteria, protoctists and viruses

    Viruses:

    • Not living organisms
    • Small particles, smaller than bacteria
    • Parasitic, reproduce only inside living cells
    • Have protein coat and contain DNA or RNA
    • Examples: tobacco mosaic virus, influenza virus, HIV

Topic 2: Structure and Functions in Living Organisms

(a) Level of Organisation

  • 2.1 Describe the levels of organisation in organisms:
    • Organelles → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Systems

(b) Cell Structure

  • 2.2 Describe cell structures:
    • Nucleus
    • Cytoplasm
    • Cell membrane
    • Cell wall
    • Mitochondria
    • Chloroplasts
    • Ribosomes
    • Vacuole
  • 2.3 Describe the functions of cell structures:
    • All structures listed above
  • 2.4 Know the similarities and differences in the structure of plant and animal cells

(c) Biological Molecules

  • 2.7 Identify chemical elements present in:
    • Carbohydrates
    • Proteins
    • Lipids (fats and oils)
  • 2.8 Describe structure of biological molecules:
    • Starch and glycogen from simple sugars
    • Protein from amino acids
    • Lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate food samples for presence of glucose, starch, protein and fat
  • 2.10 Understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions
  • 2.11 Understand how temperature changes affect enzyme function, including changes to active site shape
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate how enzyme activity is affected by changes in temperature
  • 2.13 Understand how enzyme function is affected by pH changes altering the active site

(d) Movement of Substances Into and Out of Cells

  • 2.15 Understand the processes of:
    • Diffusion
    • Osmosis
    • Active transport
  • 2.16 Understand how factors affect rate of movement of substances:
    • Surface area to volume ratio
    • Distance
    • Temperature
    • Concentration gradient
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems

(e) Nutrition

Flowering Plants

  • 2.18 Understand photosynthesis and its importance in converting light energy to chemical energy
  • 2.19 Know word equation and balanced chemical symbol equation for photosynthesis
  • 2.20 Understand how these affect rate of photosynthesis:
    • Carbon dioxide concentration
    • Light intensity
    • Temperature
  • 2.21 Describe structure of leaf and explain adaptations for photosynthesis
  • 2.22 Understand plants require mineral ions:
    • Magnesium ions for chlorophyll
    • Nitrate ions for amino acids
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate photosynthesis:
    • Evolution of oxygen from water plant
    • Production of starch
    • Requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll

Humans

  • 2.24 Understand balanced diet should include appropriate proportions of:
    • Carbohydrate
    • Protein
    • Lipid
    • Vitamins
    • Minerals
    • Water
    • Dietary fibre
  • 2.25 Identify sources and describe functions of:
    • Carbohydrate, protein, lipid
    • Vitamins A, C and D
    • Mineral ions: calcium and iron
    • Water and dietary fibre
  • 2.26 Understand how energy requirements vary with:
    • Activity levels
    • Age
    • Pregnancy
  • 2.27 Describe structure and function of human alimentary canal:
    • Mouth
    • Oesophagus
    • Stomach
    • Small intestine (duodenum and ileum)
    • Large intestine (colon and rectum)
    • Pancreas
  • 2.28 Understand how food is moved through gut by peristalsis
  • 2.29 Understand role of digestive enzymes:
    • Amylase and maltase: starch → glucose
    • Proteases: proteins → amino acids
    • Lipases: lipids → fatty acids and glycerol
  • 2.30 Understand bile is produced by liver and stored in gall bladder
  • 2.31 Understand role of bile:
    • Neutralising stomach acid
    • Emulsifying lipids
  • 2.32 Understand how small intestine is adapted for absorption, including villus structure

(f) Respiration

  • 2.34 Understand how respiration produces ATP in living organisms
  • 2.35 Know that ATP provides energy for cells
  • 2.36 Describe differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
  • 2.37 Know word equation and balanced chemical symbol equation for aerobic respiration
  • 2.38 Know word equation for anaerobic respiration in:
    • Plants
    • Animals
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from respiring seeds or other organisms

(g) Gas Exchange

Humans

  • 2.46 Describe structure of thorax:
    • Ribs
    • Intercostal muscles
    • Diaphragm
    • Trachea
    • Bronchi
    • Bronchioles
    • Alveoli
    • Pleural membranes
  • 2.47 Understand role of intercostal muscles and diaphragm in ventilation
  • 2.48 Explain how alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by diffusion
  • 2.49 Understand biological consequences of smoking:
    • Effects on lungs
    • Effects on circulatory system
    • Coronary heart disease
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate breathing in humans:
    • Release of carbon dioxide
    • Effect of exercise

(h) Transport

  • 2.51 Understand why simple, unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion
  • 2.52 Understand need for transport system in multicellular organisms

Flowering Plants

  • 2.53 Describe role of phloem in transporting sucrose and amino acids
  • 2.54 Describe role of xylem in transporting water and mineral ions

Humans

  • 2.59 Describe composition of blood:
    • Red blood cells
    • White blood cells
    • Platelets
    • Plasma
  • 2.60 Understand role of plasma in transport of:
    • Carbon dioxide
    • Digested food
    • Urea
    • Hormones
    • Heat energy
  • 2.61 Understand adaptations of red blood cells:
    • Shape
    • Absence of nucleus
    • Presence of haemoglobin
  • 2.62 Understand immune system response using white blood cells:
    • Phagocytes ingesting pathogens
    • Lymphocytes releasing antibodies
  • 2.65 Describe structure and function of the heart
  • 2.66 Explain how heart rate changes:
    • During exercise
    • Under influence of adrenaline
  • 2.67 Understand specific factors increasing risk of coronary heart disease
  • 2.68 Understand how structure of arteries, veins and capillaries relates to function
  • 2.69 Understand general structure of circulation system

(i) Excretion

Flowering Plants

  • 2.70 Understand origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as waste products and their loss from stomata

Humans

  • 2.71 Know excretory products of:
    • Lungs
    • Kidneys
    • Skin

(j) Co-ordination and Response

  • 2.80 Understand how organisms respond to changes in their environment
  • 2.81 Understand homeostasis as maintenance of constant internal environment:
    • Body water content
    • Body temperature
  • 2.82 Understand coordinated response requires:
    • Stimulus
    • Receptor
    • Effector

Flowering Plants

  • 2.83 Understand that plants respond to stimuli
  • 2.84 Describe geotropic and phototropic responses of roots and stems
  • 2.85 Understand role of auxin in phototropic response of stems

Humans

  • 2.86 Describe how nervous and hormonal communication control responses
  • 2.87 Understand central nervous system consists of:
    • Brain and spinal cord
    • Linked to sense organs by nerves
  • 2.88 Understand stimulation of receptors sends electrical impulses resulting in rapid responses
  • 2.89 Understand role of neurotransmitters at synapses
  • 2.90 Describe structure and functioning of simple reflex arc
  • 2.91 Describe structure and function of eye as a receptor
  • 2.92 Understand eye function in:
    • Focusing on near and distant objects
    • Responding to changes in light intensity
  • 2.93 Describe role of skin in temperature regulation:
    • Sweating
    • Vasoconstriction
    • Vasodilation
  • 2.94 Understand sources, roles and effects of hormones:
    • Adrenaline
    • Insulin
    • Testosterone
    • Progesterone
    • Oestrogen

Topic 3: Reproduction and Inheritance

(a) Reproduction

  • 3.1 Understand differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
  • 3.2 Understand fertilisation involves fusion of male and female gamete to produce zygote

Flowering Plants

  • 3.3 Describe structures of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers and adaptations
  • 3.4 Understand growth of pollen tube and fertilisation leads to seed and fruit formation
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate conditions needed for seed germination
  • 3.6 Understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves
  • 3.7 Understand plants can reproduce asexually by:
    • Natural methods (e.g., runners)
    • Artificial methods (e.g., cuttings)

Humans

  • 3.8 Understand structure of male and female reproductive systems
  • 3.9 Understand roles of oestrogen and progesterone in menstrual cycle
  • 3.11 Describe role of placenta in nutrition of developing embryo
  • 3.12 Understand how developing embryo is protected by amniotic fluid
  • 3.13 Understand roles of oestrogen and testosterone in development of secondary sexual characteristics

(b) Inheritance

  • 3.14 Understand:
    • Genome is entire DNA of organism
    • Gene is section of DNA molecule coding for specific protein
  • 3.15 Understand nucleus contains chromosomes on which genes are located
  • 3.19 Understand genes exist in alternative forms called alleles
  • 3.20 Understand the terms:
    • Dominant
    • Recessive
    • Homozygous
    • Heterozygous
    • Phenotype
    • Genotype
  • 3.22 Understand most phenotypic features result from polygenic inheritance
  • 3.23 Describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using genetic diagrams
  • 3.24 Understand how to interpret family pedigrees
  • 3.25 Predict probabilities of outcomes from monohybrid crosses
  • 3.26 Understand sex is controlled by one pair of chromosomes:
    • XX in females
    • XY in males
  • 3.27 Describe determination of sex of offspring at fertilisation using genetic diagram
  • 3.28 Understand division of diploid cell by mitosis produces two identical cells
  • 3.29 Understand mitosis occurs during:
    • Growth
    • Repair
    • Cloning
    • Asexual reproduction
  • 3.30 Understand division by meiosis produces four cells with half the chromosomes (haploid gametes)
  • 3.31 Understand how random fertilisation produces genetic variation
  • 3.32 Know in human cells:
    • Diploid number = 46
    • Haploid number = 23
  • 3.33 Understand variation within species can be:
    • Genetic
    • Environmental
    • Combination of both
  • 3.34 Understand mutation is rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited
  • 3.38 Explain Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection
  • 3.39 Understand how resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial populations

Topic 4: Ecology and the Environment

(a) The Organism in the Environment

  • 4.1 Understand the terms:
    • Population
    • Community
    • Habitat
    • Ecosystem
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate population size in two different areas using quadrats
  • 4.5 Understand how abiotic and biotic factors affect population size and distribution

(b) Feeding Relationships

  • 4.6 Understand names given to trophic levels:
    • Producers
    • Primary consumers
    • Secondary consumers
    • Tertiary consumers
    • Decomposers
  • 4.7 Understand concepts of:
    • Food chains
    • Food webs
    • Pyramids of number
    • Pyramids of biomass
    • Pyramids of energy transfer
  • 4.8 Understand transfer of substances and energy along food chain
  • 4.9 Understand why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to next

(c) Cycles Within Ecosystems

  • 4.10 Describe stages in carbon cycle:
    • Respiration
    • Photosynthesis
    • Decomposition
    • Combustion

(d) Human Influences on the Environment

  • 4.12 Understand biological consequences of air pollution by:
    • Sulfur dioxide
    • Carbon monoxide
  • 4.13 Understand greenhouse gases:
    • Water vapour
    • Carbon dioxide
    • Nitrous oxide
    • Methane
    • CFCs
  • 4.14 Understand how human activities contribute to greenhouse gases
  • 4.15 Understand how increase in greenhouse gases results in enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming
  • 4.16 Understand biological consequences of water pollution by sewage
  • 4.17 Understand biological consequences of eutrophication caused by leached minerals from fertiliser

Topic 5: Use of Biological Resources

(a) Food Production

Crop Plants

  • 5.1 Describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels increase crop yield
  • 5.2 Understand effects on crop yield of:
    • Increased carbon dioxide in glasshouses
    • Increased temperature in glasshouses
  • 5.3 Understand how use of fertiliser can increase crop yield
  • 5.4 Understand reasons for pest control and advantages/disadvantages of:
    • Pesticides
    • Biological control

Micro-organisms

  • 5.5 Understand role of yeast in food production (e.g., bread)
  • PRACTICAL: Investigate role of anaerobic respiration by yeast in different conditions
  • 5.7 Understand role of bacteria (Lactobacillus) in yoghurt production
  • 5.8 Understand use of industrial fermenter and need for suitable conditions:
    • Aseptic precautions
    • Nutrients
    • Optimum temperature and pH
    • Oxygenation
    • Agitation

(b) Selective Breeding

  • 5.10 Understand how selective breeding can develop plants with desired characteristics
  • 5.11 Understand how selective breeding can develop animals with desired characteristics

(c) Genetic Modification

  • 5.12 Understand how restriction enzymes cut DNA and ligase enzymes join DNA
  • 5.13 Understand how plasmids and viruses act as vectors
  • 5.14 Understand how large amounts of human insulin can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria
  • 5.15 Understand how genetically modified plants improve food production
  • 5.16 Understand term 'transgenic' means transfer of genetic material from one species to different species